Какие могут быть воспоминания: Какими бывают ВОСПОМИНАНИЯ — Карта слов и выражений русского языка

Предложения со словосочетанием СВЕЖИЕ ВОСПОМИНАНИЯ Об этих последних событиях среди населения сохранились ещё свежие воспоминания: рассказывают о том, как брались русскими крепкие башни, как гремели пушечные выстрелы и артиллерийские снаряды разбивали твердыни горцев. Нет, мы любим только свежие воспоминания о смерти наших друзей, свежее горе, свою скорбь — словом, самих себя! Аудитория, у которой ещё были свежи воспоминания о лекциях мастера, взвыла, предвкушая неисчислимые муки. Тем, у кого были ещё слишком свежие воспоминания и крепкая память, гипноз помогал забыть прошлое. Будто и не спал вообще, до такой степени свежи воспоминания в голове о вчерашнем промахе.

Привет! Меня зовут Лампобот, я компьютерная программа, которая помогает делать Карту слов. Я отлично умею считать, но пока плохо понимаю, как устроен ваш мир. Помоги мне разобраться!

Спасибо! Я стал чуточку лучше понимать мир эмоций.

Вопрос: помост — это что-то нейтральное, положительное или отрицательное?

Положительное

Отрицательное

— Поэтому ещё свежи воспоминания. Тот был невредим, но соображал слабо, и память поначалу отказывалась поднимать свежие воспоминания. А ведь у меня ещё свежи воспоминания, как час назад сам чуть в штаны от страха не наделал. В памяти были ещё свежи воспоминания о таком же невинном визите в больницу к клиенту, который закончился боем с бандой убийц, бегством и длительной погоней. И тут меня кольнуло ещё одно свежее воспоминание. Ты просто пишешь об этом спустя 3 года, по ещё свежим воспоминаниям о своем обучении. Ещё живы были ветераны, ещё свежи воспоминания. Появилось одно свежее воспоминание о встрече с подругой. — Участились случаи, когда офицерам — корректировщикам приходится работать со свежими воспоминаниями, касающимися любви. Поэтому прямо сейчас, особенно пока свежи воспоминания, я уже имел представления, что делать. Все эти свежие воспоминания проносились в голове чередом, сменяя картинку другой, как в калейдоскопе. Держался он с большим достоинством, хотя и был испуган неистовством толпы, пробудившим в нём ещё свежее воспоминание о сентябрьских днях. В памяти сыщицы ещё были свежи воспоминания о недавнем интереснейшем расследовании. Более болезненные свежие воспоминания ещё какое-то время останутся в корнях. Может, с мамой приеду, тогда с вещами и разберёмся, а пока ещё слишком свежи воспоминания. Нужно было всего лишь взять кисть, палитру, краски и, не откладывая надолго, пока свежи воспоминания, прямо с натуры написать на холсте портрет ангела. Я едва-едва отпился, до сих пор во рту свежи воспоминания. Слишком шатка психика, слишком свежи воспоминания, слишком больно… да к тому же в таком виде меня не пустят даже на паперть, не то, что в приличный дом. Идти в этот раз он решил длинным путём через поле, что бы лишний раз не будоражить, без того ещё свежие воспоминания в голове. Ещё, небось, свежи воспоминания о семейных разговорах на повышенных тонах. Ещё свежи воспоминания от поисков жилья. Я никогда не счёл бы сколь-нибудь правдивым, и имеющим толику достоверности в услышанном, кабы не были у меня столь свежи воспоминания об том тумане. Такие сильные отголоски могут быть только после отката, а у меня… Слишком свежи воспоминания о том, каково это. Тут-то и очнулась совесть: она угодливо подсунула ещё такие свежие воспоминания о белой комнате без дверей. Хороший способ для существующих клиентов — проверка качества обслуживания раз в год, например в январе, пока ещё свежи воспоминания о прошедших событиях. Здесь ещё были свежи воспоминания о советско-польской войне 1933 года. В памяти профессора до сих пор были свежи воспоминания о весьма непристойной шутке, учинённой парочкой студентов — эти хулиганы додумались намагнитить длинный стальной лом, плотно навив на него провод и пропустив по нему ток от аккумулятора. Уставился на меня тяжёлым изучающим взглядом, неспешно рассматривая с ног до головы, что позволило на несколько секунд расслабиться и окунуться в свежие воспоминания. Где-то там, где свежие воспоминания перемешивались со смутными тенями прошлого, были у него ещё какие-то картины и образы, которые ему — сейчас, по крайней мере, — не хотелось бы множить. Крестьяне понимали это и спешно эвакуировались — в памяти многих из них ещё были свежи воспоминания о долгой и кровопролитной войне, сжигавшей мир двадцать лет назад. Тягучую массу перетираем и щедро смешиваем с сахаром, и вот, после ночи сладких снов, где ещё свежи воспоминания о знойных закатах и весёлом раскачивании в лазурной вышине, бывшие фрукты становятся вареньем. Горестные мысли, по поводу несовершенства окружающего мира, вынырнув из тёмных уголков памяти, смешались со свежими воспоминаниями и канули куда-то в лабиринты и бесконечные коридоры мозга, освобождая место для следующих без оценочно — созерцательных мыслей и воспоминаний… А на обратном пути домой, когда они несли полные плетёные корзинки с малиной, однажды, в прошлом году, кажется, — им встретилась лиса, и это было яркое свежее воспоминание. У всех ещё свежи воспоминания о недавней войне, у всех есть погибшие и раненые… И, главное, не забывай: мой отец дал слово, что более ни один вампир не войдёт в эльфийскую деревню. Сейчас уже практически невозможно встретить свежие воспоминания, в которых так живо и легко, с такой самоиронией и остроумием рассказывается о повседневной жизни на протяжении почти всего XX века. Чересчур свежи воспоминания о колоссальных потерях в войне, да и связываться с супердержавами — себе дороже! Читатель найдёт ещё одно художественное произведение, написанное в той же реалистичной манере, созданное по свежим воспоминаниям. Ещё свежи воспоминания о бросившей героя девушке, так горько и больно, что жизнь кажется адом и только сочувствие друга помогает не сойти с ума. А тут ещё и свежие воспоминания о путешествии по городу, непривычная одежда и отсутствие оружие, утренние неприятности, тревожные мысли… Мы вытащили на балкон соломенные кресла, столик, укрылись пледами и, потягивая сладкий вермут, наслаждались прибрежным шумом и свежими воспоминаниями. 90000 What Is Mood Congruent Memory & What Can It Teach Us? 90001 90002 Updated March 09, 2020 90003 90002 Reviewer Wendy Boring-Bray, DBH, LPC 90003 90002 90003 90002 90009 Source: rawpixel.com 90010 90003 90002 Your memory is not just a monolithic concept; there are many branches of memory one must study if they want to see the fuller picture. In this post, we will look at the mood congruent memory effect and see what it is.Then, we will discuss other ways that emotion can affect your memory. 90003 90014 90015 What Is The Mood Congruent Memory Effect? 90016 90017 90002 The mood congruence effect is when you can remember something that’s happened to you if the memory is matching your current state. In other words, you will remember sad memories if you’re sad, happy memories if you’re happy, and so on. This can create a tough cycle to break. If you’re depressed, you remember depressive memories, and this makes you even more depressed.90003 90002 It makes sense that the emotions you have during an experience can affect how you recall it. If you are happy when an event happens, you are likely to remember it in a positive light. Emotions can affect the encoding of your memory in quite a few ways, including if the memory can be recalled or not. 90003 90002 Let’s look at the Gordon Bower study of 1981, which first suggested the idea of a mood congruence effect. The study had subjects, and it was discovered that they could remember events that had a similar emotional state as their current mood.If the subject was annoyed, they may remember other memories where they were annoyed. 90003 90002 This also helps you recall certain news. If you are depressed, you may remember negative news more than you could positive. 90003 90002 So why does our emotions influence your memory? Why are not we rational people who use judgment to encode a memory, and not emotions? Why is our brain programmed that way? Why do we remember something bad that happened to us as a child, but can not remember where we left our wallet in the morning? 90003 90002 With many odd traits in humans, the answer is usually that it was something we used for our survival back in the prehistoric days.Remembering an emotional memory can make us be wary of danger. For example, if we were thinking about fighting a strong animal, memories of animal attacks may make us think twice about it. These negative memories can prevent us from engaging in danger, while happy memories give us a feeling of comfort that encourages us not to go into danger. 90003 90002 90015 How Our Brains Encode Emotional Memory 90016 90003 90002 When it comes to research, it has been discovered that our brains will focus on emotional stimuli.In one study, participants were shown images. Some were neutral in emotions, while others were shown images of an injury. This study found that when people looked at the injury photos, they were more likely to remember them. 90003 90002 90003 90002 90009 Source: rawpixel.com 90010 90003 90002 We should also consider the fact that our brains witness a lot every day. We live hundreds of days where little happens, and then an extremely emotional memory happens. It sets itself apart from our mundane lives and allows us to recall it better.90003 90002 90015 Emotions And The Brain 90016 90003 90002 As you may have assumed, the brain is quite a mysterious organ. There are many aspects about the brain that we are yet to know about, and how your brain processes and recalls emotions is something that is not yet fully understood. 90003 90002 However, the current science we know gives us some clues. There are two regions of the brain that may play an important part, since they process emotions and memories. These are known as the hippocampus and the amygdale regions.Since they process memories and emotions, it may be a safe assumption that there is some link between the two concepts and that these parts make us recall emotional memories the way that we do. 90003 90002 One proposal is that the amygdala helps to modulate how the hippocampus processes activity. This can influence how new memories are formed. 90003 90002 90015 How Memories Are Rehearsed And Retrieved 90016 90003 90002 Emotions can turn the events that happened into an entirely different experience.However, as this article has told you, the mood you’re in can affect how you’re able to recall these memories. 90003 90002 If you’re on vacation, you can remember other nice vacation memories better. It gives you that extra feeling of happiness to know that the memories you recall are pleasant and it enhances the vacation. 90003 90002 90003 90002 90009 Source: rawpixel.com 90010 90003 90002 Meanwhile, a bad experience can create a cycle of sadness. For instance, if a relative dies, you may remember all the other losses you have experienced in your life, and that can make you even more emotional.Your mood really does affect what you are able to recall, and it proves that our ability to recall memories is not neutral. 90003 90002 There were a few experiments to prove this phenomenon. One was the Clark University experiment. In it, the participants had their moods artificially changed through different facial expressions. 90003 90002 When a participant smiled, they felt feelings of happiness. When they tried to make a fearful face, they felt fear. As it turns out, it is much easier to change one’s mood than you would think.All it may take is a certain stimuli, such as a facial expression that is associated with that emotion. For example, you may be happier if you look at happy faces, and vice versa. 90003 90002 This also helps support the theory that recalling certain memories depends on your mood. Subjects were able to access certain memories better, as they were able to change their emotions. 90003 90002 90015 Fading Affect Bias 90016 90003 90002 The fading affect bias seems to involve certain memories that we end up forgetting.This is when we learn how to forget negative memories and focus on positive memories instead. This is why people romanticize their childhood. Many people may look at the past and think everything was better then and that everything is not as good now. This is because of their biases. The past could have been just as bad, but the memories you have make it seem better than it is. 90003 90002 There have been studies to back this up, too. In 2009 one study proved that people could recall positive memories more than negative memories.The older the person, the more likely they are to recall a memory that is positive rather than negative. This is known as the rose-tinted glasses effect. 90003 90002 Not everyone views their past through this bias, but many do. This is why nostalgia is so easy to cash in on. Everyone wants to relive their childhood that may not have existed in the way they remember it. 90003 90002 90015 What Happens When One Suppresses Emotions? 90016 90003 90002 You may wonder what would happen if you tried to suppress your emotions during an event.Would it change how you recalled it? 90003 90002 90003 90002 90009 Source: pexels.com 90010 90003 90002 One study tried this idea. At Stanford University, participants were shown stimuli. Some were asked to suppress their emotions while others were allowed to be themselves. Those who did suppress their emotions seemed to have a hard time recalling the stimuli. As it may turn out, if you try to focus on your emotional state and suppress it, it can be harder for you to observe the environment around you and encode certain memories.As such, it’s hard for someone to encode a memory and make it emotionally neutral. 90003 90002 90015 So What Can We Learn From This? 90016 90003 90002 The overall implication, and what you can learn from all of this, is that emotions are very important when it comes to encoding and recalling memories. It’s quite interesting to know that, and then look back at your memories with a critical eye. How many of your memories are truly reliable? They may have truth to them, but the emotions you felt during the encoding of the memory can distort some key facts.90003 90002 This makes eyewitness testimonies all the more interesting. Most of us know that testimonies from eyewitnesses are important in a court case. But when there is emotion involved, it can become a bit problematic. How do we know that person’s memory is reliable? The emotion could change a key fact that could incriminate or free the defendant. There is also controversy as to whether or not your memories can be changed through interrogation and other means. 90003 90002 In the end, it seems that only recording your memories is the best way to have memories that are reliable.90003 90002 If you want to recall certain memories, try changing your emotions. Think about your childhood, and then look at certain stimuli that change your mood from happy to sad and so on. This will allow you to find some memories that you may not have been able to access. 90003 90002 90003 90002 90009 Source: rawpixel.com 90010 90003 90002 90015 Seek Help! 90016 90003 90002 Sometimes, your memories can trigger intense emotion, and you may not know how to cope with them.In cases like these, there is no shame in seeking a counselor for help. A therapist can help you recall memories or learn to cope with them. They can also teach you techniques to remain rational and look at your memories through a more critical lens. 90003 .90000 How Memories Form and Why So Many May Be False 90001 90002 A false memory is a recollection that seems real in your mind but is fabricated in part or in whole. 90003 90002 An example of a false memory is believing you started the washing machine before you left for work, only to come home and find you did not. 90003 90002 Another example of a false memory is believing you were grounded for the first time for not washing dishes when you were 12, but your mom tells you it was because you were disrespectful to her — and it was not the first time.90003 90002 Most false memories are not malicious or even intentionally hurtful. They’re shifts or reconstructions of memory that do not align with the true events. 90003 90002 However, some false memories can have significant consequences, including in court or legal settings where false memories may convict someone wrongfully. 90003 90002 Read on to learn more about how false memories are formed, what their impact can be on you and others, and how you can correct them. 90003 90002 Memories are complex.While you might imagine a memory as a black or white element, the truth is memories are subject to change, malleable, and often unreliable. 90003 90002 Events are moved from your brain’s temporary memory to permanent storage while you sleep. The transition, however, is not absolute. Elements of the memory may be lost. This is where false memories can begin. 90003 90018 False memory implantation 90019 90002 False memories are created in several ways. Each of these affects what changes about the memory or how it’s stored.90003 90002 It may be hard to know which of these issues caused your false memories, but knowing can ultimately help you understand why false memories are so common. 90003 90024 Suggestion 90025 90002 Inference is a powerful force. You may create new false memories with someone else’s prompting or by the questions they ask. 90003 90002 For example, someone may ask you if the bank robber was wearing a red mask. You say yes, then quickly correct yourself to say it was black. In actuality, the robber was not wearing a mask, but the suggestion they were planted a memory that was not real.90003 90024 Misinformation 90025 90002 You can be fed improper or false information about an event and be convinced that it actually did occur. You can create a new memory or combine real memories with artificial ones. 90003 90024 90035 Inaccurate perception 90036 90025 90002 Your brain is like a computer, storing what you give it. If you give it bad information, it stores bad information. The gaps left by your story may be filled in later with your own created recollections. 90003 90024 Misattribution 90025 90002 In your memory, you may combine elements of different events into a singular one.90003 90002 When you recall the memory, you’re recalling events that happened. But the timeline is jumbled or confused with the assortment of events that now form a singular memory in your mind. 90003 90024 Emotions 90025 90002 The emotions of a moment may have a significant impact on how and what’s stored as a memory. Recent research suggests negative emotions lead to more false memories than positive or neutral emotions. 90003 90002 Therapeutic memory recovery is controversial. Psychotherapy techniques, like hypnosis and guided meditation, have been used as a way for people to find suppressed memories.These memories are often traumatic, such as childhood sexual abuse. 90003 90002 These memories may directly relate to a person’s behavior today. They may inform their identify and relationships. This is called false memory syndrome, or the creation of a reality around a memory that is not true. 90003 90002 No techniques can determine the validity of these memories, and science does not yet have a way to prove that a recovered memory is true or false when independent evidence is lacking. For now, the practice of recovering memories remains a debated practice.90003 90002 Memory is not permanent. Indeed, it’s pliable and often ever-changing. Certain people or events may make you more likely to develop false memories. These include: 90003 90018 Eye witnessing 90019 90002 If you witness a crime or an accident, your testimony is important — but not conclusive. That’s because experts and law enforcement officials know memories and recollections can and do change, whether through suggestion or the passage of time. 90003 90002 Any gaps in events may be filled in by your memory, turning a reliable recall into a faulty one.90003 90018 Trauma 90019 90002 Research suggests people who have a history of trauma, depression, or stress may be more likely to produce false memories. Negative events may produce more false memories than positive or neutral ones. 90003 90018 OCD 90019 90002 Individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may have a memory deficit or poor memory confidence. 90003 90002 They may be more likely to create false memories because they do not have confidence in their own memories. This often leads to the repetitive or compulsive behaviors that are associated with this disorder.90003 90018 Aging 90019 90002 As both you and a memory age, details about that memory may be lost. The gist of a memory becomes stronger, while the details fade away. 90003 90002 For example, you may remember you went to the beach on your honeymoon, but you do not remember the name of the hotel, what the weather was like, or even the city you stayed in. 90003 90002 The only answer or treatment for false memories is independent evidence that corroborates or disproves your memories. 90003 90002 Yes, false memories may seem quite real and even highly emotional.Your confidence in them makes them feel more tangible, but it does not guarantee authenticity. 90003 90002 Likewise, the presence of false memories does not mean your memory is bad or that you’re developing a type of memory disorder, like dementia or Alzheimer’s disease. 90003 90002 False memories, for better or worse, are an element of being human and not having an impermeable brain. 90003 90002 False memories are not rare. Everyone has them. They range from small and trivial, like where you 90089 swear 90090 you put your keys last night, to significant, like how an accident happened or what you saw during a crime.90003 90002 False memories can happen to anyone. Some people may be more likely to experience them. The good news is most false memories are harmless and may even produce some laughs when your story conflicts with someone else’s memory of it. 90003.90000 How Our Brains Make Memories | Science 90001 90002 Sitting at a sidewalk café in Montreal on a sunny morning, Karim Nader recalls the day eight years earlier when two planes slammed into the twin towers of the World Trade Center. He lights a cigarette and waves his hands in the air to sketch the scene. 90003 90002 At the time of the attack, Nader was a postdoctoral researcher at New York University.He flipped the radio on while getting ready to go to work and heard the banter of the morning disc jockeys turn panicky as they related the events unfolding in Lower Manhattan. Nader ran to the roof of his apartment building, where he had a view of the towers less than two miles away. He stood there, stunned, as they burned and fell, thinking to himself, «No way, man. This is the wrong movie. » 90003 90002 In the following days, Nader recalls, he passed through subway stations where walls were covered with notes and photographs left by people searching desperately for missing loved ones.»It was like walking upstream in a river of sorrow,» he says. 90003 90002 Like millions of people, Nader has vivid and emotional memories of the September 11, 2001., attacks and their aftermath. But as an expert on memory, and, in particular, on the malleability of memory, he knows better than to fully trust his recollections. 90003 90002 Most people have so-called flashbulb memories of where they were and what they were doing when something momentous happened: the assassination of President John F.Kennedy, say, or the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger. (Unfortunately, staggeringly terrible news seems to come out of the blue more often than staggeringly good news.) But as clear and detailed as these memories feel, psychologists find they are surprisingly inaccurate. 90003 90002 Nader, now a neuroscientist at McGill University in Montreal, says his memory of the World Trade Center attack has played a few tricks on him. He recalled seeing television footage on September 11 of the first plane hitting the north tower of the World Trade Center.But he was surprised to learn that such footage aired for the first time the following day. Apparently he was not alone: ​​a 2003 study of 569 college students found that 73 percent shared this misperception. 90003 90002 Nader believes he may have an explanation for such quirks of memory. His ideas are unconventional within neuroscience, and they have caused researchers to reconsider some of their most basic assumptions about how memory works. In short, Nader believes that the very act of remembering can change our memories.90003 90002 Much of his research is on rats, but he says the same basic principles apply to human memory as well. In fact, he says, it may be impossible for humans or any other animal to bring a memory to mind without altering it in some way. Nader thinks it’s likely that some types of memory, such as a flashbulb memory, are more susceptible to change than others. Memories surrounding a major event like September 11 might be especially susceptible, he says, because we tend to replay them over and over in our minds and in conversation with others-with each repetition having the potential to alter them.90003 90002 For those of us who cherish our memories and like to think they are an accurate record of our history, the idea that memory is fundamentally malleable is more than a little disturbing. Not all researchers believe Nader has proved that the process of remembering itself can alter memories. But if he is right, it may not be an entirely bad thing. It might even be possible to put the phenomenon to good use to reduce the suffering of people with post-traumatic stress disorder, who are plagued by recurring memories of events they wish they could put behind them.90003 90002 Nader was born in Cairo, Egypt. His Coptic Christian family faced persecution at the hands of Arab nationalists and fled to Canada in 1970, when he was 4 years old. Many relatives also made the trip, so many that Nader’s girlfriend teases him about the «soundtrack of a thousand kisses» at large family gatherings as people bestow customary greetings. 90003 90002 He attended college and graduate school at the University of Toronto, and in 1996 joined the New York University lab of Joseph LeDoux, a distinguished neuroscientist who studies how emotions influence memory.»One of the things that really seduced me about science is that it’s a system you can use to test your own ideas about how things work,» Nader says. Even the most cherished ideas in a given field are open to question. 90003 90002 Scientists have long known that recording a memory requires adjusting the connections between neurons. Each memory tweaks some tiny subset of the neurons in the brain (the human brain has 100 billion neurons in all), changing the way they communicate. Neurons send messages to one another across narrow gaps called synapses.A synapse is like a bustling port, complete with machinery for sending and receiving cargo-neurotransmitters, specialized chemicals that convey signals between neurons. All of the shipping machinery is built from proteins, the basic building blocks of cells. 90003 90002 One of the scientists who has done the most to illuminate the way memory works on the microscopic scale is Eric Kandel, a neuroscientist at Columbia University in New York City. In five decades of research, Kandel has shown how short-term memories-those lasting a few minutes-involve relatively quick and simple chemical changes to the synapse that make it work more efficiently.Kandel, who won a share of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, found that to build a memory that lasts hours, days or years, neurons must manufacture new proteins and expand the docks, as it were, to make the neurotransmitter traffic run more efficiently. Long-term memories must literally be built into the brain’s synapses. Kandel and other neuroscientists have generally assumed that once a memory is constructed, it is stable and can not easily be undone. Or, as they put it, the memory is «consolidated.»90003 90002 According to this view, the brain’s memory system works something like a pen and notebook. For a brief time before the ink dries, it’s possible to smudge what’s written. But after the memory is consolidated, it changes very little. Sure, memories may fade over the years like an old letter (or even go up in flames if Alzheimer’s disease strikes), but under ordinary circumstances the content of the memory stays the same, no matter how many times it’s taken out and read. Nader would challenge this idea.90003 90002 In what turned out to be a defining moment in his early career, Nader attended a lecture that Kandel gave at New York University about how memories are recorded. Nader got to wondering about what happens when a memory is recalled. Work with rodents dating back to the 1960s did not jibe with the consolidation theory. Researchers had found that a memory could be weakened if they gave an animal an electric shock or a drug that interferes with a particular neurotransmitter just after they prompted the animal to recall the memory.This suggested that memories were vulnerable to disruption even after they had been consolidated. 90003 90002 To think of it another way, the work suggested that filing an old memory away for long-term storage after it had been recalled was surprisingly similar to creating it the first time. Both building a new memory and tucking away an old one presumably involved building proteins at the synapse. The researchers had named that process «reconsolidation.» But others, including some prominent memory experts, had trouble replicating those findings in their own laboratories, so the idea was not pursued.90003 90002 Nader decided to revisit the concept with an experiment. In the winter of 1999 року, he taught four rats that a high-pitched beep preceded a mild electric shock. That was easy-rodents learn such pairings after being exposed to them just once. Afterward, the rat freezes in place when it hears the tone. Nader then waited 24 hours, played the tone to reactivate the memory and injected into the rat’s brain a drug that prevents neurons from making new proteins. 90003 90002 If memories are consolidated just once, when they are first created, he reasoned, the drug would have no effect on the rat’s memory of the tone or on the way it would respond to the tone in the future.But if memories have to be at least partially rebuilt every time they are recalled-down to the synthesizing of fresh neuronal proteins-rats given the drug might later respond as if they had never learned to fear the tone and would ignore it. If so, the study would contradict the standard conception of memory. It was, he admits, a long shot. 90003 90002 «Do not waste your time, this will never work,» LeDoux told him. 90003 90002 It worked. 90003 90002 When Nader later tested the rats, they did not freeze after hearing the tone: it was as if they’d forgotten all about it.Nader, who looks slightly devilish in his earring and pointed sideburns, still gets giddy talking about the experiment. Eyes wide with excitement, he slaps the café table. «This is crazy, right? I went into Joe’s office and said, ‘I know it’s just four animals, but this is very encouraging!’ «90003 90002 After Nader’s initial findings, some neuroscientists pooh-poohed his work in journal articles and gave him the cold shoulder at scientific meetings. But the data struck a more harmonious chord with some psychologists.After all, their experiments had long suggested that memory can easily be distorted without people realizing it. 90003 90002 In a classic 1978 study led by Elizabeth Loftus, a psychologist then at the University of Washington, researchers showed college students a series of color photographs depicting an accident in which a red Datsun car knocks down a pedestrian in a crosswalk. The students answered various questions, some of which were intentionally misleading. For instance, even though the photographs had shown the Datsun at a stop sign, the researchers asked some of the students, «Did another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the yield sign?» 90003 90002 Later the researchers asked all the students what they had seen-a stop sign or yield sign? Students who’d been asked a misleading question were more likely to give an incorrect answer than the other students.90003 90002 To Nader and his colleagues, the experiment supports the idea that a memory is re-formed in the process of calling it up. «From our perspective, this looks a lot like memory reconsolidation,» says Oliver Hardt, a postdoctoral researcher in Nader’s lab. 90003 90002 Hardt and Nader say something similar might happen with flashbulb memories. People tend to have accurate memories for the basic facts of a momentous event-for example, that a total of four planes were hijacked in the September 11 attacks-but often misremember personal details such as where they were and what they were doing at the time .Hardt says this could be because these are two different types of memories that get reactivated in different situations. Television and other media coverage reinforce the central facts. But recalling the experience to other people may allow distortions to creep in. «When you retell it, the memory becomes plastic, and whatever is present around you in the environment can interfere with the original content of the memory,» Hardt says. In the days following September 11, for example, people likely repeatedly rehashed their own personal stories- «where were you when you heard the news?» — in conversations with friends and family, perhaps allowing details of other people’s stories to mix with their own .90003 90002 Since Nader’s original experiment, dozens of studies with rats, worms, chicks, honeybees and college students have suggested that even long-standing memories can be disrupted when recalled. Nader’s goal is to tie the animal research, and the clues it yields about the bustling molecular machinery of the synapse, to the everyday human experience of remembering. 90003 90002 Some experts think he is getting ahead of himself, especially when he makes connections between human memory and these findings in rats and other animals.»He oversells it a little bit,» says Kandel. 90003 90002 Daniel Schacter, a psychologist at Harvard University who studies memory, agrees with Nader that distortions can occur when people reactivate memories. The question is whether reconsolidation-which he thinks Nader has demonstrated compellingly in rat experiments-is the reason for the distortions. «The direct evidence is not there yet to show that the two things are related,» Schacter says. «It’s an intriguing possibility that people will now have to follow up on.»90003 90002 A real-world test of Nader’s theory of memory reconsolidation is taking place a few miles from his Montreal office, at the Douglas Mental Health University Institute. Alain Brunet, a psychologist, is running a clinical trial involving people with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The hope is that caregivers might be able to weaken the hold of traumatic memories that haunt patients during the day and invade their dreams at night. 90003 90002 Brunet knows how powerful traumatic memories can be.In 1989, when he was studying for a master’s degree in psychology at the University of Montreal, a man armed with a semiautomatic rifle walked into an engineering classroom on campus, separated the men from the women and shot the women. The gunman continued the massacre in other classrooms and hallways of the university’s École Polytechnique, shooting 27 people and killing 14 women before killing himself. It was Canada’s worst mass shooting. 90003 90002 Brunet, who was on the other side of campus that day, says, «this was a very powerful experience for me.»He says he was surprised to discover how little was known at the time about the psychological impact of such events and how to help people who’ve lived through them. He decided to study traumatic stress and how to treat it. 90003 90002 Even now, Brunet says, the drugs and psychotherapy conventionally used to treat PTSD do not provide lasting relief for many patients. «There’s still plenty of room for the discovery of better treatments,» he says. 90003 90002 In Brunet’s first study, PTSD patients took a drug intended to interfere with the reconsolidation of fearful memories.The drug, propranolol, has long been used to treat high blood pressure, and some performers take it to combat stage fright. The drug inhibits a neurotransmitter called norepinephrine. One possible side effect of the drug is memory loss. (In a study similar to Nader’s original experiment with rats, researchers in LeDoux’s lab have found that the drug can weaken fearful memories of a high-pitched tone.) 90003 90002 The patients in Brunet’s study, published in 2008, had each experienced a traumatic event, such as a car accident, assault or sexual abuse, about a decade earlier.They began a therapy session sitting alone in a nondescript room with a well-worn armchair and a television. Nine patients took a propranolol pill and read or watched TV for an hour as the drug took effect. Ten were given a placebo pill. 90003 90002 Brunet came into the room and made small talk before telling the patient he had a request: he wanted the patient to read a script, based on earlier interviews with the person, describing his or her traumatic experience. The patients, all volunteers, knew that the reading would be part of the experiment.»Some are fine, some start to cry, some need to take a break,» Brunet says. 90003 90002 A week later, the PTSD patients listened to the script, this time without taking the drug or a placebo. Compared with the patients who had taken a placebo, those who had taken the propranolol a week earlier were now calmer; they had a smaller uptick in their heart rate and they perspired less. 90003 90002 Brunet has just completed a larger study with nearly 70 PTSD patients. Those who took propranolol once a week for six weeks while reading the script of their traumatic event showed an average 50 percent reduction in standard PTSD symptoms.They had fewer nightmares and flashbacks in their daily lives long after the effects of the drug had worn off. The treatment did not erase the patients ‘memory of what had happened to them; rather, it seems to have changed the quality of that memory. «Week after week the emotional tone of the memory seems weaker,» Brunet says. «They start to care less about that memory.» 90003 90002 Nader says the traumatic memories of PTSD patients may be stored in the brain in much the same way that a memory of a shock-predicting tone is stored in a rat’s brain.In both cases, recalling the memory opens it to manipulation. Nader says he’s encouraged by the work so far with PTSD patients. «If it’s got any chance of helping people, we have to give it a shot,» he says. 90003 90002 Among the many questions that Nader is now pursuing is whether all memories become vulnerable when recalled, or only certain memories under certain circumstances. 90003 90002 Of course, there is the even bigger question: why are memories so unreliable? After all, if they were less subject to change we would not suffer the embarrassment of misremembering the details of an important conversation or a first date.90003 90002 Then again, editing might be another way to learn from experience. If fond memories of an early love were not tempered by the knowledge of a disastrous breakup, or if recollections of difficult times were not offset by knowledge that things worked out in the end, we might not reap the benefits of these hard-earned life lessons. Perhaps it’s better if we can rewrite our memories every time we recall them. Nader suggests that reconsolidation may be the brain’s mechanism for recasting old memories in the light of everything that has happened since.In other words, it just might be what keeps us from living in the past. 90003 90002 90087 Greg Miller 90088 writes about biology, behavior and neuroscience for 90089 Science 90090 magazine. He lives in San Francisco. 90087 Gilles Mingasson 90088 is a photographer based in Los Angeles. 90003 90094 90095 90094 90095 Karim Nader, a neuroscientist at McGill University in Montreal, challenged orthodox ideas about the nature of memories.(Gilles Mingasson) Memories are stored in a region of the brain called the hippocampus, shown in red in this computer illustration.(Photo Researchers, Inc.) Microscopic nerve cells, (stained green) are connected in dense networks that encode information.(Photo Researchers, Inc.) Researchers often study «flashbulb memories,» our seemingly photographic mental images of startling evens like the space shuttle Challenger explosion in тисячі дев’ятсот вісімдесят шість.(AP Images) Most people have so-called «flashbulb memories» of where they were and what they were doing when something momentous happened, such as the assassination of President John F.Kennedy. But as clear and detailed as these memories feel, psychologists find they are surprisingly inaccurate. (AP Images) The memory of the World Trade Center attack has played a few tricks on Nader.He recalled seeing television footage on September 11 of the first plane hitting the north tower of the World Trade Center. But he was surprised to learn that footage aired for the first time the following day. (AP Images) Memories change the way nerves exchange signals at points of contact called synapses.In this image, magnified thousands of times, a nerve fiber, shown in purple, meets a yellow cell body. (Photo Researchers, Inc.) Memory is surprising malleable, says Elizabeth Loftus, a psychologist at the University of California, Irvine.(Gilles Mingasson) In a classic experiment, Loftus found that people who saw pictures of a staged car crash could be led to misremember crucial details.(Elizabeth Loftus) People who saw the car at a stop sign were later tricked into thinking they’d seen a yield sign.(Elizabeth Loftus) Studies by psychologist Alain Brunet show signs of helping people with post-traumatic stress disorder.(Gilles Mingasson) Patients who recalled their trauma after taking a drug that disrupts memory formation felt less anxiety when later reminded of the event.Brunet’s assistant Elena Saimon demonstrates. (Gilles Mingasson) .90000 Memento (2000) — Frequently Asked Questions 90001 90002 There tend to be several schools of thought regarding the film’s interpretation. One is that Teddy is lying at the end and that there is no full exposition in the film or even that the film encourages one to create their own explanation. Another school of thought is that Teddy provides the exposition for the film. Even though there is no confirmation of Teddy’s story, there is also nothing refuting it and Teddy is the only source of information in the film for the events from the attack to the start of the film, so it is the most complete explanation which can come from the film.The events leading up to and through the movie are with this presumption (also included are added «facts» from the supplemental material for completeness). Unlike the movie, this explanation is presented in chronological order. 90003 90002 Leonard is an insurance investigator. One of his early cases is Sammy Jankis. Leonard relates how Sammy was in a car accident and acquired «anterograde memory dysfunction» (AMD). Leonard studies up and learns about this condition, and investigates Sammy and his testing.Sammy is not married and he is eventually discovered to be faking his condition. [It seems that the big «giveaway» to the audience is due to Sammy’s incorrect assumptions on this condition. He did not pretend to learn through conditioning and kept getting shocked by the same electrified objects instead of learning to avoid them, as someone with AMD would do.] 90003 90002 Later Leonard and his wife were attacked. His wife was raped. Leonard killed one of the attackers, but he was hit in the head by the second attacker.His wife, however, did not die in the attack. After the attack, Leonard (ironically) got AMD, the same condition he studied about earlier. Leonard was not focused and was content to just pretty much do nothing. He had no goals to drive him to do anything. [There are many possibilities about what happened with this investigation, most likely the cops took an easy way out (as Leonard suggested) and never looked for a second attacker …] His wife tried working with him, but eventually got «sick of this «and decided to try to snap Leonard out of it or just wanted to die.She used her diabetes to either «test Leonard» or (more likely) have him assist in killing her with an insulin overdose. At this point, Teddy is brought in to investigate Leonard’s wife’s death. Leonard, on some level, «remembers» killing her and starts to become more «focused». 90003 90002 Teddy and Leonard do some investigating on finding Leonard’s new quest, the hunt for the second attacker. They eventually discover a partial name (John G), which coincidentally also matches Teddy’s name. Leonard eventually is found «not guilty» of the death (most likely due to his condition) and is placed in a mental institute.During his stay, he learns to cope better with his condition, through notes and photos. He has a focus and a goal (finding and killing John G). 90003 90002 Leonard escapes from the institute and somehow hooks back up with Teddy. Teddy and Leonard track down and kill the second attacker. Leonard gets his picture taken with his finger pointing to his chest. Leonard’s quest is complete, Teddy is happy to have helped in the vengeance. But, the «killing» does not «stick». Leonard does not believe it as well as some other elements of the truth, and starts to «delete items» from the file.Teddy leads Leonard along, continuing the investigation for some time. Eventually Teddy reluctantly decides to try and make Leonard happy again, by finding some «bad guy», killing him, and also making some money. He decides on Jimmy Grantz. He feeds info to Leonard to indicate that the first name may also be «James» (not just «John») and begins the feeding to Leonard of the information. 90003 90002 The movie takes place a little over a year since the killing of the second attacker, Leonard discovers the truth and decides to setup Teddy.Like the items in his file that do not match Leonard’s belief of what happened, the evidence that he has already killed two «John G» s is destroyed, and Teddy is «marked for deletion» by Leonard with the «fact» of the license plate. Leonard finds a note from Natalie (meant for Jimmy to meet her «after») and thinks it is for him. He meets Natalie at Ferdy’s bar. Natalie tries using Leonard to kill Dodd, Jimmy’s partner, who she wants out of the picture because she says Dodd may come after her looking for the money.Leonard will not kill for Natalie but runs Dodd out of town. Natalie takes pity on Leonard and helps him in his quest by running the license plate for him. Leonard then meets Teddy after convincing himself that Teddy is John G, and kills him. Leonard probably killed the first John G right after escaping (which was «over a year ago» as Teddy said in the film). Edit 90003 .